Can a mating between two black parents result in red puppies? I've seen a whole litter of puppies by two black & white parents being registered as blue roans. Is that possible? How can one tell whether a puppy is roan or open marked? How come that no puppy by a chocolate roan dog and out of a an orange roan bitch has neither of the parents colours but three others? In this article I will try to answer these questions and explain why a mating between two black & white Cockers cannot result in blue puppies.

My description of the inheritance of colours is based upon "Spanielboken" written by Marianne Hermelin. It's an old book, from the 50's I believe, which I just found in the library. This article has been published in Cockertidningen 4/95.

Some colour genes are inherited in a predominant way. If the dog has this gene it will show. Other genes are inherited in a recessive way. If this recessive gene is to be noticable, there must be no dominant gene hiding it. Dominant genes are indicated with capital letters, recessive with small. The following indications are used in Cocker Spaniels:
BBEE = black
BBee = red
bbEE = brown
TT = solid
tt = parti-coloured
RR = roan
rr = open marks

In the following examples I will simplify and just use the letters which are interesting in every specific case. The outcome in every table of division is theoretical and not applicable in every litter but in a statistically large enough selection.

The easiest case is when to solid black dogs without any recessive genes are mated to each other. Both of them will only carry black EE and all progeny will be black. Even if one of the parents carries red, Ee, the whole litter will be black. This is what it looks like in a division table:

If a great number of puppies were born, 50% would be black without being carriers for red, EE. 50% would also be black but would be carriers for red, Ee. In this exact way PRA is inherited. If one of the parents is a carrier for PRA but the other is not, 50% of the puppies will theoretically pass on the disease, but none of them will get PRA. We won't know which is a carrier until we have the misfortune of mating it to another carrier with some puppies getting PRA as a result.

Two black parents can get red progeny if both of them carry red. They will then have E = gene for black and e = gene for red. In the division table it looks like this:

You can see that the chance of getting red puppies is 1 to 4, those in the table having the indication ee. Again, we can compare with the inheritance of PRA. Let's say that e symbolises the PRA gene, this means that ee will develop PRA, Ee is a carrier but will not develop PRA. EE does not even have a recessive gene and therefore will not pass it on.

Black & white Cockers can have these set of genes; EEttrr or Eettrr (carrier for red, e, which in parti coloured Cockers is called orange). If anyone of them had the roan gene, R, they would not be open marked but roan as R is dominant over r. The set of genes could be split into Etr and etr. In a vast number of puppies 1/4 would be black & white not carrying for orange & white, EEttrr, 2/4 would also be black & white but carrying for orange & white, Eettrr. Finally 1/4 of the puppies can be orange & white, eettrr. As you can see an orange & white dog has no dominant genes. That is one of the reason that this colour is rare.

 How can one tell whether a puppy is roan or open marked? Orange roan and orange & white are often, but not always, born white as snow, with no visible spots. It might take two - three weeks before one can see light tea coloured spots on the puppies. Just after a few days the puppies start to get pigment on their noses and on the pads. If the pigment comes at random, then the puppy is open marked. It is the same with black & white. But if the pigment starts shaped as a dark ring around the pads and nose and gradually fills the pad towards the middle, then the puppy is roan. Blue roan puppies often already have pigmented pads and nose at birth. When the puppies grow older some open marked can show separate hairs of the blotched colour in the white parts, not as much as roan. This is called "Ticked". Judges often call these "light blue roan". Genetically they are open marked. Have a look at the pads. Open marked Cockers can still once they are adults have unpigmented parts of the pads. That does not happen in roans. Nowadays it is not unusual that we mate solids to parti-colours. In that way the basis of breeding is increased and that is not a bad idea. The negative consequences we see is that some puppies may be born with more white on the chest than is permitted by the standard. They can also get white hairs on the muzzle or on top of the head. In those places there must be no white if it is a solid Cocker. But those who are born with it do not suffer from the spots.

In this example a black & white dog is mated to a red bitch. He has the set of genes,   EEttrr. I know that the bitch has the set eeTt because she is red and does not have a dominant gene for black, E, and her dam - Line Sam Gleam ´n Glory - is black & white which makes her a carrier for parti colours. I believe that even the pure solid bred dogs can carry for roan or open marks. This is based upon the fact that this very combination resulted in roan puppies. The sire and grand dam does not have the roan gene and therefore it has to come from the solid red maternal grand sire, Greentree Don´t Think Twice. Half of the puppies will theoretically be solid black and the other half parti-coloured. The black puppies carry parti-colour, t. The parti-coloured could be either roan or have open marks. All puppies will be carriers for orange/red from the dam, e.In this combination was Cocker of the Year 1994 Line Sam Vikings thinks twice born.

 In the last example a brown roan dog carrying for tan is mated with an orange roan bitch, who also carries for tan. His set of genes could be bbEEttRrCcII and hers BBeettRrCcIi. In reality this bitch had seven puppies: three blue roan & tans, three blue roans and one black & white. There are so many possible combinations that I prefer to split it into two different tables, one for the colour and another for the tan.

The colour table looks like this:

 Theoretically there is only 25% chance of getting an open marked puppy, BbEerr. All puppies will get a black dominant gene, E, from the dog. This gene is a part of his brown gene, bbEE. It hides the red/orange gene, BBee, from the bitch and no puppy will be orange, i.e. the colour of the dam. In her orange gene there are BB. BB is dominant and hides the bb from the sire. No puppy will be brown roan but all puppies will be carriers for orange and brown.

The tan markings are indicated with a recessive pair of genes making the tan markings appear, cc, and the actual tan gene which is dominant, II. Let us suppose that the dog has the set CcII and the bitch CcIi.

Theoretically there is only a 2/8 chance of getting tan marked puppies according to this example, ccII and ccIi.

Here is a list of the colour indications:

Which are the most common colours? In Sweden about 30% of the registered Cockers are blue or red. About 20% are black. A bit more than 50% are parti-coloured.

As a matter of fact, there is one more gene that brings one or more new colours to the Cocker. The colours is not yet seen in Sweden, but is well known in Germany, Denmark and the USA. The ones I’ve seen have been solid coloured sables. It looks very much as if the tan marks have taken over and spread all over the Cocker and just left the ends of the hairs with the original colour. I’m not sure how these colours are inherited. It’s said to be an A-gene that dominates all other genes. If so, there should be solid coloured sables with black ends of the hairs, solids with brown ends of the hairs, roans with black or chocolate ends of the hairs and finally open marks with black or chocolate ends of the hairs. It’s only on the black or brown parts of the parti-coloured Cockers that the sable is seen, not on the white parts.

If you mate a red dog with an black sable bitch you can get 25% of the litter sable coloured. The red dog genes are aaee, he has no genes for sable, A, and not for black, E. The bitch got AaEe. As she is sable coloured she must have at least one dominant gene for that colour, A, but probably not double AA, and she has got genes for black, E. In this case let's guess that she also has a recessive gene for red, e.

Aaee got the gene for sable but as there are no gene for black, E , the sable will not bee seen and the puppies will appear red. The puppies with aaee will be red as they don't have any gene neither for black E nor sable A.

 Kennel Line Sam
Tord Lundborg - Cocker Spaniel - Borås, Sweden

In the wild any species with a small gene pool will eventually die out. If they do not evolve through the natural selection process, subsequent offspring become prone to disease or infection from weakened immune systems, and they will eventually either devolve into a sub species or become extinct. Temperament is also largely hereditary and consistent in breeding produces delicate, weak or unstable temperaments.
To an extent, that is what would happen with dog breeding if we were around long enough to see it happen. Our selection process is contrary to what would happen naturally; we nurture the weak and occasionally breed from them; in the wild it is survival of the fittest. A pack of animals do not support their poor unhealthy stock, and frequently a dominant male will overthrow the leading male of another pack in order to gather females with fresh genes into their pack. A pack of animals will also naturally disseminate, and individuals (usually young males) will establish their own packs for breeding.
In order to perpetuate any species or breed, we must outcross from time to time to re-introduce fresh blood. The clock can't go back to what were once seen as spectacular examples of a breed. Life evolves and all species change.

Good breeders know their bitches qualities and faults, and spend many hours studying pedigrees and looking at dogs in order to decide on the right male for their bitch. In an ideal world, only a dog with no faults and a perfectly matching pedigree would be used (if we wish to line-breed), but that is an impossibility, so most try to use the best quality dog available. Using poor examples of the breed, will always result in poor quality puppies. Good breeders do not necessarily use Champions. He may look good, but i) can he produce ~ ie what type of puppies does he sire, does he 'stamp his mark on his puppies' ii) does he 'tie in' by genotype with the bitch if looking to produce 'type' and iii) does he match the bitch in phenotype (looks).

A dog may re-produce consistently good animals of a type who do not resemble him; that does not necessarily make him animal a poor sire. Using a Champion is certainly no guarantee of a quality litter. As a very experienced breeder remarked "there are winners, and there are producers". Breeding from a large gene pool will produce animals of sounder, stronger temperaments. A little drop of outcross makes a big splash. HOWEVER, if consistency of TYPE is required, it is necessary to make an occasional 'in' or 'line-breed' to double up and enhance of a particular animal. Often long established breeders who consistently try to reproduce what they 'once had', will by consistent in/line-breeding, achieve poorer quality stock than their previous animals.

WHEN TO BREED

Most people owning a good working  Cocker Spaniel bitch will wish to breed from her at least once and a litter or two during the early years of her life is well worth considering. Not only can pedigree dog breeding offer an owner tremendous interest, probably even some financial reward, but to the younger members of the family it can provide a useful education. The best time to arrange for a bitch to be mated is when she is at her second heat or season, providing this occurs when she is not less than fourteen months of age. If for any reason, the heat in question occurs a month or two earlier than this, then leave her alone until the next season breaks. Should her intervals of heat continue irregularly, it might be wise to have her examined by your veterinary surgeon who will know what to do in order to have her ready for the planned mating.

The breeding life of a Cocker Spaniel can extend up to ten years, even more in unusual cases, but the average Cocker bitch should not be bred from after six years of age. This assumes she has had a previous litter or two and whelped them easily and reared them well too. No Cocker bitch should be mated for the first time beyond the age of three and a half years; to do so could prove hazardous, although not necessarily if her strain is noted for its good whelping ability, when a further six months extension can be granted giving her a chance to prove her procreative powers. In any case, a mature Cocker in whelp should always be referred to your veterinary surgeon who will agree to stand by on the expected whelping date to give assistance if required. Note that because a bitch, especially one of advanced years, has what appears to be a normal season, this does not mean she will definitely conceive, even with a reliable stud dog’s efforts. These days, the incidence of false heats and ‘misses’ (when a mated bitch fails to conceive) becomes more common. No-one knows quite why this is; probably it is due to some chemical deficiency occasioned by the domestic dog’s way of modern living. A bitch so affected does not shed ova at the time of her oestrum, so there is nothing there for the male to fertilise at mating time.

In a way, it is unfair to put the rigours of nursing upon an older bitch.

If you intend to breed, breed from a good, sound, well set up yearling.

She will tackle the job of producing and nursing her first litter with

enthusiasm and no doubt produce something worthwhile for you if you have been careful in your selection of the sire. In any case, if you have a good Cocker you will help the breed along by increasing its population, providing you strive to produce stock which is at least as good as, preferably better than the parents. This might appear a very difficult task, especially if one or both the parents are champions! However, your duty to the breed will be done by ensuring that both members of the proposed union were compatible in type, style, temperament, health, soundness and pedigree before putting them together. This condition is no more than a simple duty to your chosen breed and if you are successful it will prove most inspiring in the satisfaction it gives.

Before contemplating a union make sure your bitch is fit, and apart from the normal meaning of fitness which encompasses soundness (both body and temperamental) as well as health and bloom, it is essential that she carries no excess weight. A fat bitch is likely to ‘miss’ or at least have a difficult whelping, maybe with considerable veterinary expense. Even worse, it is not unknown for mortality to occur when the bitch is obese and ill prepared for the duties of motherhood; this in itself being a peril showing how important it is to ensure the Cocker is in good supple trim at all times.

DEFINITIONS OF IN-BREEDING, LINE-BREEDING, OUTBREEDING AND OUTCROSSING

In-breeding is the mating of two very closely related animals, ie Father to Daughter, Brother to Sister. This may be successful depending on what is behind the dog's and bitch's pedigree, however, only experienced breeders who are very sure of the qualities and faults which lie in the
background of their dogs should in-breed their stock. Tight In-breeding without experience, will undoubtedly result in considerable problems with puppies, possibly deformities. It largely depends what is behind each animal.

Line-breeding (or tying in) denotes one or more common relatives within the first 3 generations of the pedigree. Line-breeding is undertaken to ensure that the careful breeding that has resulted in a particularly good animal is maintained. For instance - if we have a bitch whose qualities
we want to maintain, we would look for a dog of similar breeding or who has some relative within those first 3 generations, to maintain the 'type'. However, even if there is a tie, do we want to tie on that dog for his or her qualities? Line-breeding does double up on the qualities of the animals mated, but it can also double up on the faults. This is why experienced breeders are aware of what is behind each animal they consider breeding from, in order to benefit from the qualities and avoid the faults. There is no point in line breeding for the sake of it if the animals on which the pedigree ties are undesirable or carry a fault we may wish to eradicate. To quote one conversation overheard recently "I'll probably use X because he's got the same grandfather as my bitch, although I know the dog was a bit long". What will occur there, is doubling up on the length of the grandfather.

Outbreeding is when the dog and bitch have no common relatives in the first 3 generations and when they themselves are results of outbreeding. There may be common relatives further back in the pedigree, but for the purposes on breeding for a particular type, these would have little effect on the type of puppy being bred for. It would therefore be beneficial to use a stud dog with known strong benefits to correct a fault on a bitch or if the ultimate intention is to very closely inbreed later on.

Outcrossing is similar to outbreeding, although both sire and dam may be line bred. This mating combination is useful to introduce fresh genes into stock and is an excellent means to combine genes from two quality animals to reap benefits from both sides. It can also be useful when a bitch is so tightly line bred herself, to line breed on her would be detrimental in terms of preventing the ever decreasing circles and 'rut' of consistent on-going line breeding that produces nothing of any new benefit to the breed and no new blood to prevent the gene pool stagnating.

If a stud dog or brood bitch is known to 'stamp their mark' on their offspring, (perhaps because they themselves are the product of tight
line-breeding) they are referred to as prepotent, and if both parents are prepotent, the mating of the two animals will produce similar a litter of even type puppies. Some prefer to use Champions or 'dogs of the day' on their bitches, without considering whether the stud dog will benefit their bitch. Some are only interested in looking at the stud dog and one litter's worth of progeny without looking at what strengths (or weaknesses) their own bitch has.

The Bitch in Season

Sexual behaviour is seasonable in most animals, but when a bitch reaches the age of about eight months (and in certain cases younger or later) oestrum will occur; in other words, the bitch will be ‘in season’. The condition is recognized by the swelling of the organs. At first there will be a clear mucous discharge, followed by a red discharge which usually continues for ten or twelve days. In some cases it will clear up earlier, in others it will go on longer. This is followed by a heavy white discharge which will go on for another few days. In normal cases the heat lasts from three to four weeks. During the ‘in season’ period a bitch will change her habits considerably. She will become very skittish and perhaps may become faddy with her food. Most people do not show ‘in season’ bitches out of consideration for dog-owners, but in any case her movement may be affected. Generally speaking, however, you should watch for your bitch puppy coming in season at about the age of eight months, although it may not occur until the age often or twelve months or even later — I have known bitches not to come in until eighteen months of age. In very rare instances a bitch does not come in season at all; in a case of this sort you should see your veterinary surgeon.

Another very trying thing for a breeder: a bitch will some times have what is called a false heat, coming in season long before she is due. This condition is difficult to recognize from a true heat. The bitch will even stand to be mated, but does not prove in whelp, and just when she is due for her puppies she will come in season again. This time she may be mated with every success. Often bitches will show colour for a week or even longer after mating— it may be they have been mated too early. If it does not continue for too long it may be disregarded.

After its first appearance the heat should recur about every six months, but there again you cannot always be certain to a month or so. When the bitch has been mated it often recurs when her puppies are four months old, or six months after the previous heat. Until all signs of season have completely disappeared the bitch must be most carefully protected or she is almost certain to get out and mate herself, to perhaps an un certain character; she will not mind if he is a champion cocker or the lowest scruffy mongrel. Some bitches will go to any extreme in order to get out and will travel for miles followed by a retinue of dogs, whilst others are quite indifferent about the whole thing.

The greatest menaces of all are the crossbred street dogs. They will scent and trail a bitch for miles; therefore never let her off the lead when being exercised. It is surprising how a dog can suddenly appear from nowhere, even in the midst of the country when you think it is quite safe to let your bitch have a lovely scamper over the moors. If your bitch has been mated, and her season is over, let her have as much natural freedom as possible right up to the time she is due to whelp. Both she and her puppies will be all the better for it. Failure to take care of one’s bitch when in season, and failure to control a dog when there is obviously a bitch about in that condition, is one of the worst forms of neglect.

The Breeding Bitch

 Paul Boland B.V.Sc. M.R.C.V.S

To Breed Or Not To Breed?

First of all we need to decide if we really should breed from one of our bitches. An example where we would not want to breed from a bitch is where she has so many serious faults that, even when an
excellent stud dog is used, the offspring would still carry many serious faults. Surely, it would be better for the breeder to buy a better quality bitch! If she has a serious hereditary complaint, for example, bilateral medial luxating patella or HC then we would not want to breed from her. However, in the vast majority of cases the answer is not so simple and we must consider the bitch as a 'whole' specimen and look at her good and bad points before making the decision as to whether or not to breed from her.
If one has decided that a particular bitch is not going to bred from then she should be spayed at an early age. We recommend that this be done before the first season i.e. at 6 months of age. Although you will find others who disagree, the medical reasons for the early spaying of bitches is that it reduces
the risk of mammary cancer and diabetes mellitus (sugar diabetes), it also prevents pyometra, unplanned pregnancies and false pregnancies. People argue that it causes a bitch to put on weight. However, that besides hypothyroidism a dog only puts on weight if it eats more calories than are burned up during exercise and normal bodily processes. If not enough calories are consumed then the dog will obviously lose weight. So, if your dog is overweight and 60% of dogs are, then decrease its food consumption and increase its exercise.

Planning The Mating

This important part of dog breeding must be properly planned and thought through. First one must decide at what season to mate the bitch. The answer is when the bitch is physically and mentally
mature. For most bitches this would be the third season but for some it could be the second season. I would be interested to have people's thoughts on this. Don't leave it too late as then the bitch may
become infertile, stop having seasons or develop pyometra and need to be spayed. If your bitch has stopped having seasons then it is not the end of the world; we can do something for her. Infuture articles 1 will try to explain this complicated medical complaint and its treatment.
Next one must pick the stud dog. All I will say on this issue is pick the dog that you want to use. Don't be bullied by so called 'experts'. However, you must know and understand the reasons for your choice of stud dog. It is important before the mating to agree a stud fee and whether any return mating due to pregnancy failure are free or not, if a tie has occurred in most cases you will have to pay again for the studs services. If at all possible this should be writing thus affording any future confusion.
Finally, inform the owner of the stud dog when your bitch is likely to be in season so that they are ready for you.

The Oestrous Cycle

A bitch can have her season (oestrous cycle) from 6 months of age. Then she usually has two per year. Pro-oestrus is the beginning of a season and lasts on average for 9 days. The vulva swells and
there is bloody discharge from the vulva the quantity of which varies greatly and is of no clinical significance. Indeed, some bitches remove most of it by licking. The bitch passes small quantities of urine more frequently to disseminate pheromones (sex hormones that attract male dogs). At this stage, while she is attracted to male dogs, she will not usually stand to be mated. Ovulation (release of eggs) may occur towards the end of this period. Oestrus lasts on average for 9 days but is very variable. The start is when the bitch will stand to be mated and ends when she refuses. The bloody discharge tends to become less copious and bloody but this is not a constant feature. Ovulation tends to occur towards the beginning of oestrus. Some important facts are:
I.  ovulation may occur as early as day 5
2. ovulation may occur as late as day 23
3. ovulation may not be consistent during successive seasons in the same bitch. Therefore, it is obvious that mating on day 11 and 13 because this is when my bitches are ready is a risky game.
4. because dog sperm can live for up to 7 days in the bitch, and because ova (eggs) are not ready for fertilisation until 3 days after ovulation, bitches which are mated by more than one dog can have mixed litters!
Dioestrus starts when a bitch first refuses to stand to be mated and lasts about 60 days. The vulva becomes less swollen and the bloody discharge gradually ceases. False pregnancies frequently occur during late dioestrus. Anoestrus refers to the period between seasons when there is no ovarian activity. It can last from I month to 2 years but usually lasts 4 months. An interesting fact is that bitches kept together often exhibit proestrus/oestrus around the same time. This is thought to be due to the release of pheromones from one oestrus bitch stimulating the others.
 

When To Mate The Bitch

Most bitches are mated 10-13 days after the beginning of proestrus with good results because sperm can survive for 7 days in the bitch and ova (eggs) are not ready to be fertilised until 3 days after
ovulation, so that matings after ovulation may be fertile. Obviously, repeated matings 24 - 48 hours apart increase the likelihood of conception. However, help in detecting ovulation is required when,
1. only one mating is feasible i.e. stud dog lives on the other side of country or bitch needs to be restrained during mating
2. artificial insemination is being used
3. the bitch ovulates much earlier or later than average and has therefore 'missed' before. Remember a bitch can ovulate from day 5 - 23.
Ovulation time can be detected using vaginal cytology (looking at cells from the vagina under a microscope) or by measuring blood progesterone levels. Vaginal smears should only be taken by and examined by experienced people.  (the examination of cells under a microscope).
The first smear is taken 5 days after the first observed signs of proestrus, then every 2 - 3 days if required. I have yet to use this method as we measure the blood progesterone levels using the Premate
blood test. Rising levels of progesterone indicate that ovulation is about to occur or has occurred. This particular test does increase the conception rate and has been shown in Greyhounds to increase the
litter size. However, it is not 100% accurate but I personally feel that when it fails it is usually because of operator error or there is a problem with the bitch or the dog. Premate tells you when to mate the bitch and usually only one mating is required. I find it is a very good test but it costs about £25 - £30 per test and a bitch may need 2 - 4 tests per season. But if your champion bitch has missed before then surely it is worthwhile.
In summary, if one doesn't try to detect ovulation then mate the bitch every 2 days from when she will stand to be mated for 2 - 3 occasions. If ovulation detection is tried then use a person or veterinary surgeon that has experience of the appropriate procedure.

Mating The Dog And Bitch

Most readers will have far more experience than myself and I don't want to teach a 'Granny to suck eggs'. However, the following is for the novice. Have at least three people present, one of whom must be experienced. If possible the dog and bitch should be allowed to sniff each other, as this will tend to relax them.
Occasionally, some bitches will need to be muzzled or even sedated with ACP sedative tablets to prevent them from biting the dog or handlers or scarring an inexperienced dog. However, don't confuse general snappy behaviour with a bitch who simply isn't ready to be mated. If a bitch snaps at the dog, and refuses to allow him to mount her, it is often because you are trying too early and she simply isn't ready. The answer is to try again the next day. When the bitch is co-operative she will eventually stand still to allow the dog to mount her from behind, and she will raise her tail to one side and lift her vulva to facilitate intromission (penetration). The dog then mounts the bitch with his forelimbs gripping her tightly in front of her pelvis. After ejaculation the dog will want to dismount. With help from the handlers both front feet are placed to one side of the bitch, then the opposite back leg is lifted over the bitches back whilst turning round. Now the dog and bitch are bum to bum in the 'tie' position, which lasts for about 15 - 45 minutes. The conception rate is higher if a tie has occurred because this means that ejaculation has more likely occurred. However, the effect of the length of a tie on fertility is not known, although many breeders feel that a long tie increases the conception rate. A final point is don't leave the dog and bitch to run in the garden all afternoon just because sexual intercourse between dogs embarrass you!

Paul Boland B.V.Sc. M.R.C.V.S 

The Bitch in Whelp

A bitch in whelp should have every care and attention. The success of her litter will depend largely on the way she has been looked after during pregnancy. She will need plenty of nourishing food, although it is imperative to avoid excessive fatness as this is likely to cause difficulty at whelping time. You cannot do better than to give her a liberal supply of raw beef, or horseflesh; about three-quarters of a pound to a pound daily should be sufficient. This could be divided, and given with some rusked brown bread or biscuit morning and evening. In addition, an egg beaten with milk is good, and a teaspoonful of cod liver oil. Also, calcium should be added to her food intake. There are many forms of calcium with added vitamins and trace elements available from pet shops or veterinary surgeons, but it is necessary to realize that dosage instructions are usually given for ‘medium-sized’ dogs. Remember that this can include the lightly boned miniature poodle, whilst you are looking for a really sturdy dog. Do not under dose, rather tend to overdose a little. One cannot overstate the importance of the care and feeding of the bitch in whelp and of the puppies if the litter is to reach its full potential. Some people believe that a good teaspoonful of milk of magnesia every morning will be beneficial as, apart from being a mild laxative, it will reduce the risk of acid milk, which causes the death of so many puppies.

A bitch will need exercise right up to the last, or as long as she can take it without discomfort, but do not overdo her. If you are conveniently situated, let her have as much natural freedom as possible.

Bitches in whelp should be free from worms, particularly because they may be passed on to the unborn puppies through the blood-stream. It is wise to worm her a fortnight after mating if you see any sign of worms.

The bitch should be given a box for whelping in, large enough for her to stretch herself out. It is wise to have a ledge all round the inside, about two-and-a-half inches wide and three inches from the floor. This will prevent the bitch crushing the puppies on the side of the box and many lives will be saved this way if your bitch is clumsy. It is wise to prepare the bed where she is to have her puppies some time before. If you move her just as she is due to whelp you will be asking for trouble. Do not attempt it; she will probably not settle and as the puppies are born she will try to carry them back to her old bed and you may lose the lot in consequence. Whatever bedding you put into the box before whelping will possibly be scratched out, so it is best to give very little of any kind. Many people line the box with newspapers during the whelping.

Top layers can be removed during whelping, or more layers added, and the whole lot easily taken away whilst the bitch is out relieving herself after she has finished whelping.

Avoid a loose blanket or anything of that sort. It could easily get bunched up and suffocate the puppies. After the puppies are born it is a good idea to put a piece of plywood into the bot tom of the box, covered with a piece of fleecy blanketing fitted like a pillow case, so that it cannot be scratched up by the bitch. Providing something other than newspapers seems to give the puppies a good footing, and they are more easily able to get a grip with their paws when sucking.

There are now many materials available to those in hospital use for incontinent patients and, being very warm as well, they have become a boon at whelping time. They can easily be removed for washing, are machine washable, and can be tumble dried very quickly. Most bitches do not try to scratch this type of bedding up, but if they do, then a light backing of cotton or nylon sheeting to form a ‘pillow case’ for the plywood can be used. This type of bedding seems to help puppies to get on their feet very much more quickly than if they are on the floor of a box with a plain wooden surface.

The full period of gestation is 63 days from the time of mating, although it is a common thing for the puppies to be born a few days early; but there is no need to worry, within the limits of a few days or so before or after. If the puppies are born six days too soon they very seldom survive. Some bitches go one or two days over the normal time, but provided your bitch is fit and well and not straining there is little you can do about it. Should she begin straining and no puppy is born after a couple of hours, send for your veterinary surgeon as in such cir circumstances something might be wrong. One can usually tell within a few hours when a bitch is going to whelp. There is a disinclination for food and possibly the last meal she has eaten will be vomited; she will seek a quiet spot if she is not already alone in her kennel, and will probably pant, start to scratch and make a bed. Her temperature will probably drop as low as 98°F(36.5°C). This fall in temperature is almost always a good guide when whelping will begin – usually within 24 hours.

WHELPING

Signs that whelping is imminent—The course of an uncomplicated whelping

It is quite impossible to understand these without a thorough knowledge of the fundamental processes of a perfectly simple, straightforward, normal whelping. Moreover, as some later details are a trifle unpleasant it is intended that this shall be devoted only to the pleasant part of our hobby—a normal whelping. It is doubtless the gratifying culmination of breeding plans made a year or two in advance; of the service satisfactorily concluded; of several weeks of care and affection from the time your bitch proved in whelp. It is the time when the bitch and her owner are closer together than at any other and a time when she trusts and has to rely on you implicitly. By confidence and knowledge let this is a happy climax for both. Don’t wreck plans and aspirations, or let your bitch down through carelessness and ignorance, should the expected normal prove to be abnormal.

Reactions of the Bitch the Day Before She Whelps

Assuming that the mating has been satisfactory, the bitch is safely in whelp, has been properly exercised and if necessary her diet increased and supplemented. She should be examined by your veterinary surgeon during her last week of pregnancy. He may be able to give you some indication when she is likely to come into labour. He may also advise worming if the bitch has not already been wormed. It may be relevant to emphasize that worming should always be carried out before the bitch is mated and again after the forty-first day of pregnancy. Modern worm remedies are very safe and with some it is now usual to administer low daily or weekly doses throughout pregnancy and while the puppies are suckling until they are weaned. Maiden bitches vary considerably in their whelping behaviour. Some go to full term and whelp easily. Many will whimper, tear their blankets, scratch feverishly and make their

Whelping

beds, or rush wildly from room to room one or two days before their litters arrive. Some try to find a secret place for their lying-in. You must be prepared for all these tricks. Don’t be misled by such antics into believing that the bitch is about to whelp at once. This behaviour may go on for hours or the whole day previous to parturition.

Signs that the Whelping is Imminent

One of the earliest indications that labour may be anticipated within 24 to 48 hours is a drop in the bitch’s temperature, although this is often not seen. Thereafter the following signs should be looked for and noted; they are all pointers that actual whelping will not be long delayed:

(1) The bitch settles down rather quietly, often stretched full out with head between paws.

(2) She pants and breathes heavily, perhaps giving a sharp cry as though in pain; these are the labour pains.

(3) She makes apprehensive turns of her head, looking anxiously at her rear parts.

(4) She will refuse food.

(5) She will more often than not vomit.

(6) The vulva is swollen and softens, and there is a clear mucous discharge.

(7) She will press hard with her rear against her box and make heaving or straining motions.

No.7 is the most important sign of all, and at the first sign of straining you should look at your watch. The time elapsing between these first heaves and the delivery, or more specifically the non-appearance of a whelp, tells you whether the whelping is going to be quite normal or whether you may expect difficulty. It is the most important phase in intelligent co-operation with the veterinary surgeon if a complication ensues, and the information which will help him most. Invariably the veterinary surgeon’s first question is: ‘When did she actually start in labour?’ If you cannot accurately inform him he has to guess. If you can tell him ‘three, four or five hours ago’, he can more readily decide what action to take.

The Biological Factors, and Normal Course of an Uncomplicated Whelping

Labour straining having started, the intermittent heaves may continue for anything from five minutes to one and a half hours before a pup is produced. These should be followed by the appearance of the water-bag (a lay expression; the following is a technical description). The water- bag should not be mistaken for a whelp, as is so frequently done by novices. It resembles a mass of greenish-black fluid contained in a membrane or skin; it varies in size according to the time taken to pass it. Each foetal whelp is encased in a membrane, and contained in a sac of fluid. This is designed by nature to protect the whelp while in the uterus or womb from external shock or injury as it acts like a buffer or cushion. A further purpose of this amniotic fluid sac is that instead of the whelp’s body emerging first, the uterine contractions squeeze the fluid into a bag-shape, which by preceding the whelp facilitates its egress, having gently dilated the vaginal passage.

The way for the whelp thus prepared, the water-bag emerges and bursts, and a whelp should shortly afterwards appear, either nose first with front feet facing forward or hind legs first since both anterior and posterior presentation (this is not a breech!) are normal in the bitch. One vigorous labour strain will usually expel the whelp immediately and entirely.

The whelp is still deriving nourishment and oxygen via the umbilical cord, which attaches it to the placenta. The placenta, commonly known as the afterbirth, resembles a mass of raw meat, and varies in si from two inches in diameter to five inches according to the breed.

Cord and placenta should both come away with the whelp .The whelp being completely encased in the membrane, the normal bitch’s instinct and immediate duty is to tear away this membrane with her teeth, thus allowing the whelp to breathe air for the first time in the post-uterine state. Next, the bitch should start to sever

with her teeth the umbilical cord and finally devour the after-birth. This is a normal function; it provides the bitch with some nourishment, so that she may take no solid food during the first forty-eight hours. She should next energetically lick the pup and generally rough house it all over the whelping bed; this is to dry and warm it and to stimulate the heart action and lungs. By this time the whelp should have given its first tiny cry; when that happens one knows all is well, and in a few minutes it should fumble towards a nipple and start guzzling. The bitch heaves a sigh, settles her head between her paws, and awaits the next onset of pains, which should occur within half an hour and should never be delayed by more than three hours. The whole process is repeated again and is continued until all the whelps have arrived, when the bitch settles herself down. The breathing is calm, deep and slow again; the anxious, strained look disappears. She takes on a seraphic expression and has no further use for her master or mistress for at least two days, merely tolerating their presence. She violently resents intrusion by anyone else. A curtain should be put over the box. Keep her quiet and in semi darkness, and withstand the temptation to show her puppies to all and sundry, since this can not only upset the bitch but also increase the chances of infections, if the bitch is due for a booster against the inoculable diseases which would mean the puppies receiving a reasonable level of maternal antibodies through her milk. The bitch is frequently thirsty at this stage and should be given drinks of warm milk with added glucose, or gravy and eggs if she prefers. Many authorities suggest no solid food should be given for forty-eight hours after whelping but there is no foundation for this theory. If the bitch is hungry after her massive exertions she should be fed but care should be taken not to overdo it within the first forty-eight hours when she well may have diarrhoea as a result of eating her afterbirths.

Try to weigh each puppy as it is born.

Post natal examination

It is not always easy to ascertain whether the last or all the puppies have arrived. By feeling the flanks, foetal movements can sometimes be detected. It is to the advantage of all breeders, particularly the novice, to have a post-natal veterinary examination, preferably within twenty-four hours of the whelping. This is, firstly to ensure that no whelp has been left unborn (which can cause dire complications when one had thought all was well), and, secondly, the veterinary surgeon will give an injection to clear the uterus of any afterbirth or membrane debris remaining. This reduces the risk of temperature from a septic condition and ultimate septicaemia.

Note that throughout the whole of this normal whelping the owner

should merely sit beside the bitch; his presence and occasional soft toned encouragement will give her all the assistance she requires. In abnormal whelping as above described let your policy be: minimum amount of interference or assistance; know what she should do and act only if she fails to do it; know what complications to expect and act correctly when they happen. If the bitch behaves normally, and nothing untoward occurs, leave her alone; don’t agitate her. It is important not to display anxiety and fuss too much over her during the forty-eight hours before the due date. Animals can sense such concern and react to it.

How to act when professional aid is not available—Severance of the cord—Breech presentation—Uterine inertia

In this chapter complications are detailed and advice given about action in emergencies. Step by step, we will consider MINOR complications at each stage of normal whelpings.

(1) A bitch is lazy and nervous; feeling pain and having made a tentative heave, she cries and will make no further labour effort, knowing it will hurt. She will lie passively, sulk, and pack it up. This has been known to go on for twelve hours and calls for veterinary action; an injection has to be given to contract the uterus and expel the whelp, or the whelps must be removed with forceps. Technically, this is an example of uterine inertia.

(2) The water-bag appears, bursts, but is not followed by a whelp. If a period of more than two hours elapses some complication must be feared, especially if the bitch continues to strain heavily. A veterinary surgeon must always be contacted after this period.

(3) The bitch, particularly a maiden one, when the first whelp appears either has no instinct